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WORD-BUILDING AND DERIVATION.

1. The primary element—that which is the shortest form—of a word is called its root. Thus tal (which means number) is the root of the words tale and tell and till (a box for money).

2. The stem is the root + some modification. Thus love (= love + e) is the stem of lov.

3. It is to the stem that all inflexions are added, and thus to love we add d for the past tense.

4. If to the root we add a suffix, then the word so formed is called a derivative. Thus by adding ling to dar (= dear), we make darling.

5. In general, we added English prefixes and English suffixes to English words; but this is not always the case. Thus we have cottage, where the Latin ending age is added to the English word cot; and covetousness, where the English ending ness is added to the Latin word covetous. Such words are called hybrids.

6. When two words are put together to make one, the one word so made is called a compound.

7. The adding of prefixes or of suffixes to words, or the making one word out of two, is called word-formation.

COMPOUND NOUNS.

8. Compound Nouns are formed by the addition of:—

(i) Noun and Noun, as—

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COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.

9. There are in the language a great many compound adjectives, such as heart-whole, sea-sick, etc.; and these are formed in a large number of different ways.

Compound adjectives may be formed in the following ways:—

(i) Noun + Adjective, as purse-proud, wind-swift, way-weary, sea-green, lily-white.

(ii) Noun + Present Participle, as ear-piercing, death-boding, heart-rending, spirit-stirring, sea-faring, night-walking, home-keeping.

(iii) Noun + Passive Participle, as moth-eaten, worm-eaten, tempest-tossed, way-laid, forest-born, copper-fastened, moss-clad, sea-girt.

(iv) Adverb + Present Participle, as far-darting, everlasting, high-stepping, well-meaning, long-suffering, far-reaching, hard-working.

(v) Adverb + Passive Participle, as high-born, “ill-weaved,” well-bred, thorough-bred, high-strung, ill-pleased.

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(vi) Noun + Noun + ed, as hare-brained, dog-hearted, beetle-headed, periwig-pated, club-footed, lily-livered, trumpet-tongued, eagle-eyed.

(vii) Adjective + Noun + ed, as evil-eyed, grey-headed, thin-faced, empty-headed, tender-hearted, thick-lipped, two-legged, three-cornered, four-sided, high-minded, bald-pated.

(viii) Noun + Noun, as bare-foot, lion-heart, iron-side.

(ix) Adverb + Noun + ed, as down-hearted, under-handed.

COMPOUND VERBS.

THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS.

11. Adverbs are derived from Nouns, from Adjectives, from Pronouns, and from Prepositions.

a. Adverbs derived from Nouns are either: (i) Old Possessives, or (ii) Old Datives, or (iii) Compounds of a Noun and a Preposition:—

(i) Old Possessives: Needs = of need, or of necessity. The Calendrer says to John Gilpin about his hat and wig—

“My head is twice as big as yours,
They therefore needs must fit.”

Of the same class are: always, nowadays, betimes.

(ii) Old Datives. These are seldom and the old-fashioned whilom (= in old times).

(iii) Compounds: anon= (in one moment), abed (= on bed) asleep, aloft, abroad, indeed, of a truth, by turns, perchance, perhaps.

b. Adverbs derived from Adjectives are either: (i) Old Possessives,  or (ii) Old Datives, or (iii) Compounds of an Adjective and a Preposition:—

(i) Old Possessives: else (ell-es, possessive of al = other), unawares, once (= ones), twice, thrice, etc.

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(ii) Old Datives. The old English way of forming an adverb was simply to use the dative case of the adjective—which ended in ë. Thus we had deepë, brightë, for deeply and brightly. Then the ë dropped away. Hence it is that there are in English several adverbs exactly like adjectives. These are: fast, hard, right (in “Right Reverend”), far, ill, late, early, loud, high.

(iii) Compounds of an Adjective and a Preposition: on high, in vain, in short, at large, of late, etc.

c. Adverbs derived from Pronouns come from the pronominal stems: who, the (or this), and he. The following is a table, and it is important to note the beautiful correspondences:—

(i) How and why are two forms of the same word—the instrumental case of who. How = in what way? Why = with what reason?

(ii) The, in the last column, is the adverbial the (A.S. thý) before a comparative. It is the instrumental or ablative case of that or thaet. “The more, the merrier” = by that more, by that merrier. That is, the measure of the increase in the number is the measure of the increase in the merriment.

(iii) Thus is the instrumental case of this, and is = in this manner.

d. Compound Adverbs are formed by adding together—

(i) Noun and Noun, as lengthways, endways.

(ii) Noun and Adjective, as—

(iii) Preposition and Noun, as Aboveboard, outside.

(iv) Adverb and Preposition, as—

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.

12. The Prefixes used in our language are of English, French, Latin, and Greek origin.

(i) French is only modified Latin. Hence French prefixes fall naturally under Latin prefixes, as the one is only a form of the other.

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13. English Prefixes are divided into Inseparable and Separable. Inseparable Prefixes are those that have no meaning by themselves and cannot be used apart from another word. Separable Prefixes may be used and are used as independent words.

14. The following are the most important

English Inseparable Prefixes:—

1. A (a broken-down form of O.E. an = on), as—

2. Be (an O.E. form of by), which has several functions:—

(i) To add an intensive force to transitive verbs, as—

(ii) To turn intransitive verbs into transitive, as—

(iii) To make verbs out of nouns or adjectives, as—

(iv) To combine with nouns, as—

(v) To form part of prepositions and adverbs, as before, besides, etc.

3. For (O.E. for = Lat. per) means thoroughly, and has two functions:—

 (i) To add an intensive meaning, as in—

Forswear means to swear out and out, to swear anything, hence falsely. Compare the Latin perjurare; hence our perjure.

(ii) To give a negative meaning, as in forgo (wrongly spelled forego), to go without.

4. Fore = before; as forebode, forecast.

5. Gain (O.E. gaegn, back, again), found in gainsay (to speak against); gainstand.

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6. Mis (O.E. mis, wrong; and connected with the verb to miss), as in—

Caution.—When mis occurs in French words, it is a shortened form of minus, less; as in mischief, mischance, miscount, miscreant (= non-believer).

7. Th, the prefix of the third personal pronoun and its cognates, and indicating something spoken of, as in—

8. Un = not, as

9. Wan (O.E. wan, wanting; and connected with wane), which is found in—

10. With (a shortened form of O.E. wither=back or against) is found in—

It exists also in a latent form in the word drawing-room = withdrawing-room.

15. The following are the most important

English Separable Prefixes:—

1. After, which is found in—

2. All (O.E. al, quite), which is found in—

3. Forth, found in forthcoming, forward, etc.

4. Fro (a shortened form of from), in forward.

5. In appears in modern English in two forms, as:—

 (i) In, in—

(ii) En or em (which is a Frenchified form), in—

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6. Of or off (which are two spellings of the same word), as—

7. On, as in onset, onslaught, onward.

8. Out, which takes also the form of ut, as in—

9. Over (the comparative of the ove in above), which combines:—

(i) With nouns, as in—

(ii) With adjectives, as in—

(Shakespeare is very fond of such forms.)

(iii) With verbs, as in—

10. Thorough or through, two forms of the same word, as in—

Shakespeare has “thorough bush, thorough brier, thorough flood, thorough fire”.

11. Twi = two, in twilight, twin, twist, etc.

12. Under, which goes:—

(i) With verbs, as in—

(ii) With nouns, as in—

(iii) With other words, as in—

13. Up, which goes:—

(i) With verbs, as in—

(ii) With nouns, as in—

(iii) With other words, as in—

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16. There are in use in our language many Latin Prefixes; and many of them are of great service. Some of them, as circum (about), come to us direct from Latin; others, like counter (against), have come to us through the medium of French. The following are the most important

Latin Prefixes:—

1. A,  ab, abs (Fr. a, av), away from, as in—

2. Ad (Fr. a), to, which in composition become ac, af, ag, al, an ap, ar, as, at, to assimilate with the first consonant of the root. The following are examples of each:—

All these words come straight to us from Latin, except agree, arrive, and attain. The following are also French: Achieve (to bring to a chef or head), amount, acquaint.

3. Amb, am (ambi, about), as in—

4. Ante (Fr. an), before, as in—

5. Bis, bi, twice, as in—

6. Circum, circa, around, as in—

7. Cum, with, in French com, which becomes col, con, cor, coun, and co before a vowel, as in—

(i) In cost (from constare, to “stand”); couch (from collŏco, I place); cull (from collĕgo, I collect); and cousin (from consobrīnus, the child of a mother’s sister), the prefix has undergone great changes.

(ii) Co, though of Latin origin, can go with purely English words, as in co-worker, co-understanding. These are not desirable compounds.

8. Contra (Fr. contre), against, which also becomes contro and counter, as in—

(i) In counterweigh and counterwork we find it in union with English roots.

(ii) In encounter we find it converted into a root.

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9. De (Fr. de), down, from, about, as in—

It has also two different functions. It is—

(i) negative in destroy, deform, desuetude, etc.

(ii) intensive in desolate, desiccate (to dry up), etc.

10. Dis, di (Fr. des, de), asunder, in two, as in—

11. Ex, e (Fr. es, e), out of, from, as in—

(i) ex has a privative sense in ex-emperor, etc.

(ii) In amend (emendo), astonish (étonner), the e is disguised.

(iii) In sample (short for example), scorch (O. Fr. escorcer), and special (for especial), the e has fallen away.

12. Extra, beyond, as in—

(i) In stranger (O. Fr. estranger, from Lat. extraneus) the e has fallen away.

13. In (Fr. en, em), in, into, which changes into il, im, ir, as in—

(i) It unites with English roots to make the hybrids embody, embolden, endear, entrust, enlighten, etc.

(ii) In ambush (Ital. imboscarsi, to put one’s self in a wood), the in is disguised.

14. In, not, which becomes il, im, ir, and ig, as in—

(i) The English prefix un sometimes takes its place, and forms hybrids with Latin roots in unable, unapt, uncomfortable.

(ii) Shakespeare has unpossible, unproper, and many others.

15. Inter, intro (Fr. entre), between, among—as in

16. Male (Fr. mau), ill, as in—

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17. Mis (Fr. mes, from Laitn minus), less, as in—

Caution.—Not to be confounded with the English prefix mis in mistake, mistrust, etc.

18. Non, not, as in—

20. Pene, almost, as in—

21. Per (Fr. par) through, which becomes pel, as in—

(i) Pilgrim comes from peregrinus, a person who wanders per agros, through the fields, — by medium of Ital. pellegrino.

(ii) Perhaps is a hybrid.

22. Post, after, as in—

(i) The post is much disguised in puny, which comes from the French puis né = Lat. post natus, born after. A “puny judge” is a junior judge, or a judge of later creation.

23. Prae, pre (Fr. pré), before, as in—

(i) It is shortened into a pr in prize, prison, apprehend, comprise (all from prehendo, I seize).

(ii) It is disguised in provost (prepositus, one placed over), in preach (from prœdico, I speak before), and provender (from prœbeo, I furnish).

24. Praeter, beyond, as in—

25. Pro (Fr. pour), which becomes pol, por, pur, as in—

26. Re (Fr. re), back, again, which becomes red, as in—

(i) It is much disguised in rally (= re-ally), in ransom (a shortened Fr. form of redemption), and in runagate (= renegade, one who has denied—negavit—his faith).

(ii) It combines with English roots to form the hybrids relay, reset, recall.

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27. Retro, backwards—as in retrograde, retrospect.

(i) It is disguised in rear-guard (Ital. retro-gardia), rear, and arrears.

28. Se (Fr.sé), apart, which becomes sed, as in—

29. Sub (Fr. sous or sou), under, which becomes suc, suf, sud, sum, sup, sur, and sus, as in—

(i) Sub is disguised in sojourn (from O. Fr. sojorner, from Low Latin subdiurnāre), and in sudden (from Latin subitaneus).

(ii) It combines with English roots to form the hybrids sublet, subworker, subkingdom, etc.

30. Subter, beneath—as in subterfuge.

31. Super (Fr. sur), above, as in—

(i) It is disguised in sovereign (which Milton more correctly spells sovran), from Low Latin superanus.

32. Trans (Fr. trés), beyond, which becomes tra, as in—

(i) It is disguised in treason (the Fr. form of tradition, from trado (= transdo), I give up), in betray and traitor (from the same Latin root), in trance and entrance (Latin transitus, a passing beyond), and in trestle (from Latin diminutive transtillum, a little cross-beam).

33. Ultra, beyond, as in—

(i) In outrage (O. Fr. oultrage) the ultra is disguised.

34. Unus, one, which becomes un and uni, as in—

35. Vice (Fr. vice), in the place of, as in—

17. Our language possesses a considerable number of prefixes transferred from the Greek language, many of which are very useful. The following are the most important

Greek Prefixes:—

1. An, a (αν, α), not, as in—

2. Amphi (αμφί), on both sides, as in—

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3. Ana (ανα), up, again, back, as in—

4. Anti (αντί), against or opposite to, as in—

5. Apo (από), away from, which also becomes ap, as in—

6. Arch, archi, arche (αρχή), chief, as in—

7. Auto (αυτός), self, which becomes auth, as in—

8. Cata, cat (κατά), down, as in—

9. Dia (διά), through, across, as in—

(i) This prefix is disguised in devil—from Gr. diabŏlos, the accuser or slanderer, from Gr. diaballein, to throw across.

10. Dis, di, (δίς), twice, as in—

11. Dys (δυς), ill, as in—

12. Ec, ex (εκ, εξ), out of, as in—

13. En (ευ), in, which becomes el and em, as in—

14. Epi, ep (επί), upon, as in—

15. Eu (εν), well, which also becomes ev, as in—

16. Hemi (ημί), half, as in—

17. Hyper (υπέρ), over and above, as in—

18. Hypo, hyp (υπό), under as in—

19. Meta, met (μετά), after, changed for, as in—

20. Mono, mon (μόνος), alone, as in—

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21. Pan (παν), all, as in—

22. Para (παρά), by the side of, which becomes par, as in—

23. Peri (περί), round, as in—

24. Pro (πρό), before, as in—

25. Pros (πρός), towards, as in—

26. Syn (σύν), with, which becomes syl, sym, and sy, as in—

18. The Suffixes employed in the English language are much more numerous than the Prefixes, and much more useful. Like the Prefixes, they come to us from three sources—from Old English (or Anglo-Saxon); from Latin (or French); and from Greek.

19. The following are the most important

English Suffixes to Nouns:—

1. Ard or art (=habitual), as in—

2. Craft (skill), as in—

3. D, t or the (all being dentals), as in—

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4. Dom (O.E. dôm=doom), power, office, from deman, to judge, as in—

(i) In O.E. we had bisceopdóm (=bishopdom); and Carlyle has accustomed us to rascaldom and scoundreldom.

5. En (a diminutive), as in—

(i) The addition of a syllable has a tendency to modify the preceding vowel—as in kitchen (from cook), vixen (from fox) and nătional (from nātion).

6. Er, which has three functions, to denote—

(i) An agent, as in—

(ii) An instrument, as in—

(iii) A male agent, as in—

The ending er has become disguised in beggar and sailor (not sailer, which is a ship). Under the influence of Norman-French, an i or y creeps in before the r, as in collier (from coal), lawyer, glazier (from glass), etc.

7. Hood (O.E. hâd), state, rank, person, as in—

(i) In Godhead, this suffix takes the form of head.

8. Ing (originally = son of) part, as in—

(i) This suffix is found as a patronymic in many proper names, such as Browning, Harding; and in Kensington, Whittington, etc.

(ii) Lording (= the son of a lord) and whiting (from white) are also diminutives.

(iii) This ing is to be carefully distinguished from the ing (= ung) which was the old suffix for verbal nouns, as clothing, learning, etc.

9. Kin (a diminutive), as in—

(i) It is also found in proper names, as in Dawkins (= little David), Jenkins (= son of little John), Hawkins (= son of little Hal), Perkins (= son of little Peter).

10 . Ling = l + ing (both diminutives), as in—

(i) Every diminutive has a tendency to run into depreciation, as in groundling, underling, worldling, etc.

(ii) In some words, ing has been weakened into y or ie, as in Johnnie, Billy, Betty, etc.

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11. Le or l, as in—

12. Lock (O.E. lâc, gift, sport), which also becomes ledge, as in—

(i) This is not to be confuse with the lock and lick in the names of plants which in O.E. was leac, and which we find in hemlock, charlock; garlick (= spear plant) and barley (= berelic).

13. Ness forms abstract nouns from adjectives, as in—

(i) Witness differs from the above in two respects: (a) it comes from a verb— witan, to know; and (b) is not always an abstract noun.

(ii) This English suffix combines very easily with foreign roots, as in acuteness, commodiousness, gracefulness, remoteness, and many others.

14. Nd (which is the ending of the present participle in O.E.), found in—

15. Ock (a diminutive), as in—

(i) In hawk (= the seizer, from have) this suffix is disguised.

(ii) It is also found in proper names, as in—

     Pollock (from Paul).           Maddox (from Matthew).        Wilcox (from William).

16. M or om, which forms nouns from verbs, as in—

(i) This suffix unites with the Norman-French word réal (royal) to form the hybrid realm.

17. Red (mode, fash on—and also counsel), as in—

(i) This ending is also found in proper nouns. Thus we have Mildred = mild in counsel; Ethelred = noble in counsel, called also Unrede, which does not mean unready, but without counsel.

18. Ric (O.E. ríce, power, dominion)—as in bishopric.

(i) In O.E. we had abbotric, hevenricke, and kingric.

19. Ship (O.E. scipe, shape or form), which is also spelled scape and skip, makes abstract nouns, as in—

(i) Milton writes landskip for landscape.

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20. Stead (O.E. stéde, place), as in—

21. Ster was originally the form of er, the suffix for a male agent: it now has two functions:—

(i) It denotes an agent, as in—

(ii) It has an element of depreciation in—

(iii) We had, in Old English, baxter (fem. of baker), webster (weaver), brewster, fithelstre (fiddler), seamestre (sewer), and even belleringestre (for female bellringer). Most of these are now used as proper names.

(iv) Spinster is the feminine of spinner, one form of which was spinder, which then became spider.

22. Ther, der, or ter denotes the agent—with the notion of duality—as in

23. Wright (from work, by metathesis of the r), as in—

24. Ward, a keeper, as in—

(i) Ward has also the Norman-French form of guard.

(ii) In steward, the word stîge or sty meant stall for horse, cows, etc.

20. The following are the most important

English Suffixes to Adjectives:—

1. Ed or d, the ending for the passive participle, as in—

2. En, denoting material, as in—

3. En, the old ending for the passive participle, as in—

4. Ern, denoting quarter, as in—

5. Fast (O.E.) faest, firm), as in—

6. Fold (O.E. feald), as in—

(i) Simple, from Lat. simplex, has usurped the place of anfeald = onefold.

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7. Ful = full, as in—

8. Ish (O.E. isc) has three functions; it denotes:—

(i) Partaking in the nature of, as in—

(ii) A milder or sub-form of the quality, as in—

(iii) A patrial relation as in—

9. Le, with a diminutive tendency, as in—

10. Less (O.E. leâs), loose from, as in—

11. Like (O.E. lîc), softened in ly, as in—

12. Ow (O.E. u and wa), as in—

(i) Fallow is connected with the adjective pale, and yellow with the yol in yolk.

13. Right, with the sense of direction, as in—

14. Some (O.E. sum, a form of same, like), as in—

15. Teen (O.E. tyne) = ten but addition, as in—

(i) In thirteen = three + ten, the r has changed its place by metathesis.

(ii) In fifteen, the hard f has replaced the soft v.

16. Ty (O.E. tig) = tens by multiplication, as in—

17. Ward (O.E. weard, from weorthan, to become), denoting direction, as in—

(i) This ending, ward, has no connection with ward, a keeper. It is connected with the verb worth in the line, “Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day!”

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18. Wise (O.E. wîs, mode, manner), as in—

(i) The English or Teutonic ending wise has got confused with the Lat. ending ous (from osus = full of).

19. Y (O.E. ig, the guttural of which has vanished) forms adjectives from nouns and verbs, as in—

21. The following are the most important

English Suffixes for Adverbs:—

1. Ere, denoting place in, as in

2. Es, or s (the old genitive or possessive), which becomes se and ce, as in—

(i) “I must needs go” = of need.

3. Ly (O.E. lîce, the dative of lîc), as in—

4. Ling, long, denotes direction, as in—

(i) Grovelling is not really a present participle; it is an adverb, and was in O.E. gruflynges.
(ii) We once had also the adverbs flatlings and noselings.

5. Meal (O.E. maelum = at times), as in—

(i) Shakespeare, in “Cymbeline,” has the line—
                               “O that I had her here, to tear her limbmeal.”

(ii) Chaucer has stound-meal = hour by hour; King Alfred has stykkemaelum = stick-meal, or here and there.

6. Om (an old dative plural), as in—

7. Ther, which denotes place to, as in—

8. Ward or wards, which denotes direction, as in—

9. Wise (O.E. wîs, manner, mode), as in—

“Some people are wise; and some are otherwise.”

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22. The following are the most important

English Suffixes for Verbs:—

1. Le or l has two functions:—

(i) Frequentative, as in—

(ii) Diminutive, as in—

2. Er or r adds a frequentative or intensive force to the original verb, as in—

Er has also the function of make causative verbs out of adjectives, as linger (long), lower, hinder.

3. En or n makes causative verbs out of nouns and adjectives, as in—

4. K has a frequentative force, as in—

5. S or se has a causative force, as in—

23. The Suffixes of Latin origin are of great importance; and they have been of great use for several centuries. Many of them—indeed, most of them—have been influenced by passing through French mouths, and hence have undergone considerable change. The following are the chief

Latin and French Suffixes for Nouns:—

1. Age (Lat. aticum), which forms either abstract or collective nouns, as in—

(i) It unites easily with English roots to form hybrids, as in bondage, mileage, tonnage, poundage, tillage, shrinkage.

2. An, ain, or ane (Lat. ānus), connected with, as in—

(i) The suffix is disguised in sovereign (O. Fr. soverain), which has been wrongly supposed to have something to do with reign; in warden, citizen, surgeon, etc.

Milton always spells sovereign, sovran.

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3. Al or el (Lat. ālis), possessing the quality of, as in—

(i) Canal and channel are two different forms—doublets—of the same. So are cattle and chattels (capitalia).

(ii) Hospital, spital, hostel, hotel, are four forms of the one Latin word hospitalium. (Ostler is a shorter form of hosteller, with a dropped h.)

4. Ant or ent (Latin antem or entem), denotes an agent, as in—

5. Ance, ancy, or ence, ency (Lat. antia, entia), forms abstract nouns, as in—

(i) Chance comes from late Lat. cadentia=an accident. Cadence is a doublet.

6. Ary, ry, or er (Lat. arium), a place where a thing is kept, as in—

(i) The ending ry unites freely with English words to form hybrids, as in cookery, piggery, robbery.

(ii) In Jewry, jewellery (or jewelry), poultry, peasantry, cavalry, the ry has a collective meaning.

7. Ary, ier, eer, or er (Lat. arius), denotes a person engaged in some trade or profession, as in—

(i) This ending is disguised in chancellor (cancellarius), vicar, butler (= bottler), usher (ostiarius, a doorkeeper), premier, etc.

8. Ate (Lat. atus, past participle ending), becoming in French e or ée, denotes—

(i) An agent, as in—

(ii) The object of an action, as in—

In grandee the passive signification is not retained.

9. Ce (Lat. cium, tium, or tia), forms abstract nouns, as—

10. El, le or l (Lat. ŭlus, ellus, etc.), a diminutive, as in—

(i) A buckle used to have a cast of the human face.

(ii) Castle, from Lat. castellum, a little fort, from castrum, a fort.

(iii) Libel, from Lat. libellus, a little book (liber).

(iv) Pommel, from Lat. pomum, an apple.

(v) Seal from Lat. sigillum.

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11. Ern (Lat. erna), denoting place, as in—

12. Et, ette, and let (Fr. et, ette) all diminutives, as in—

(i) The let is = l + et, and is found in bracelet, fillet, cutlet, etc. It also unites with English words to form hybrids—as in hamlet, leaflet, ringlet, streamlet, etc.

(ii) This ending is disguised in ballot (a small ball), chariot (car), parrot (= perroquet), etc.

13. Ess (late Lat. issa), a female agent, as in—

(i) It unites with English words to form the hybrids murderess, sempstress (The last is a double feminine, as seamestre is the old word.)

14. Ice, ise, or ess (Lat. tia; Fr. esse), as in—

(i) It is a significant mark of the carelessness with which the English language has always been written, that the very same ending should appear in three spellings in largess, noblesse, riches.

(ii) Riches is a false plural: it is an abstract noun, the French form being richesse.)

15. Ice (Lat. icem acc. of nouns in x), which has also the forms of ise, ace, as in—

(i) The suffix is much disguised in radish (= the root, from radīcem).

(ii) It is also disguised in partridge and judge (judĭcem).

16. Icle (Lat. iculus, ellus, ulus), which appears also as cel and sel, a diminutive, as in—

(i) The ending is disguised in rule (regula), carbuncle (from carbo, a coal), uncle (avunculus), and vessel (from vas).

(ii) Parcel and particle are doublets.

17. Ine or in (Lat. inus) related to, as in—

(i) Cousin is a contraction—through French—of the Latin consobrinus, the child of a mother’s sister.

(ii) The ending is disguised in pilgrim, from peregrinus=from per agros, through the fields.

18. Ion (Lat. iōnem), which appears also as tion, sion, and, from French, as son, som, denotes an action, as in—

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(i) Potion, poison,  and the three other pairs are doublets—the first having come through the door of books straight from the Latin, the second through the mouth and ear, from French.

(ii) Venison (hunted flesh, from venationem), season (sationem, the sowing time), belong to the above set.

19. Ment (Lat. mentum) denotes an instrument or an act, as in—

(i) It combines easily with English words to make hybrids, as atonement, acknowledgment, bewitchment, fulfilment.

20. Mony (Lat. monium) makes abstract nouns, as—

21. Oon or on (Fr. on; Ital. one), an augmentative, as in—

(i) Augmentatives are the opposite of diminutives. Contrast balloon and ballot; galleon and galliot (a small galley).

(ii) A balloon is a large ball; a cartoon a big carte; a dragoon a large dragon; a saloon a large hall (sale); flagon (O. Fr. flascon), a large flask; million, a big thousand (mille); pennon, a large pen or feather; galleon, a large galley; trombone, a large trump-et; truncheon, a large staff (or trunk) of office.

22. Ory, (Lat. orium), which appears also as or, our, and er, and denotes place, as in—

(i) Mirror is contracted by the French from miratorium; parlour from parlatorium; manger from manducatorium = the eating-place. Dormer is short for dormitory, from dormitiorium.

23. Our (Lat. or; Fr. eur), forms abstract or collective nouns, as in—

(i) The ending resumes its French form in grandeur.

(ii) It forms a hybrid in behaviour.

24. Or or our (Lat. orem; Fr. eur) denotes an agent,  as in—

(i) This ending is disguised in interpreter, labourer, preacher, etc.

(ii) A large number of nouns which used to end in our or or, took er through the influence of the English suffix er. They were “attracted” into that form.

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25. T (Lat. tus—the ending of the past participle) indicates a completed act, as in—

(i) The t in Latin has the same origin and performs the same function as the d in English (as in dead, finished, and other past participles, etc.)

(ii) The ending is disguised in feat, which is a doublet of fact, in fruit (Lat. fruct-us), comfit (= confect), counterfeit (= contrafact-um).

26. Ter (Lat. ter) denotes a person, as in—

(i) Magister comes from magis, more, which contains the root of magnus, great; minister from minus, less.

27. Tery (Lat. terium) denotes condition, as in—

28. Trix (Lat. trix) denotes a female agent, as in—

(i) This ending is disguised in empress (Fr. impératrice from Lat. imperatrix); and in nurse (Fr. nourrice, Lat. nutrix).

29. Tude (Lat. tudĭnem), denotes condition, as in—

(i) In custom, from Lat. consuetudinem, the ending is disguised..

30. Ty (Lat. tatem; Fr. té) makes abstract nouns, as in—

(i) Bounty (bonté), poverty (pauvreté), frailty, and fealty come, not directly from Latin, but through French.

31. Ure (Lat. ura) denotes an action, or the result of an action, as in—

32. Y (Lat. ia; Fr. ie) denotes condition or faculty, as in—

(i) This suffix unites easily with English words in er—as bakery, fishery, robbery, etc.

(ii) It stands for Lat. ium in augury, remedy, study, subsidy, etc.

(iii) It represents the Lat. ending atus in attorney, deputy, ally, quarry.

24. The Latin (or French) suffixes employed in our language to make Adjectives are very useful. The following are the chief

Latin Suffixes for Adjectives.

 1. Aceous (Lat. aceus) = made of, as in—

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2. Al (Lat. ālis) = belonging to, as in—

(i) Loyal and royal are the same words as legal and regal; but, in passing through French, the hard g has been refined into a y.

3. An, ane, or ain (Lat. anus and aneus) = connected with, as in—

(i) This ending disguises itself in mizzen (medianus); in surgeon (chirurgianus); and in sexton (contracted from sacristan).

(ii) In champaign (level), and foreign (foraneus), this ending greatly disguises itself. In strange (extraneus), still more. All have been strongly influenced by their passage through French.

4. Ant, ent (Lat. antem, entem, acc. of pres. part.), as in—

5. Ar (Lat. āris) which appears also as er = belonging to, as in—

(i) Premier (Lat. primarius), has received its present spelling by passing through French.

6. Ary (Lat. ārius), which also takes the secondary formations of arious and arian = belonging to, as in—

7. Atic (Lat. ăticus) = belonging to, as in—

8. Able, ible, ble (Lat. ābilis, ĕbilis, ĭbilis) = capable of being, as in—

(i) Feeble (Lat. flebilis, worthy of being wept over), comes to us through the O. Fr. floible.

(ii) This suffix unites easily with English roots to form hybrids, like eatable, drinkable, teachable, gullible. Carlyle has also doable.

9. Ple, ble (Lat. plex, from plico, I fold) = the English suffix—fold, as in—

10. Esque (Lat. iscus; Fr. esque) = partaking of, as in—

(i) This ending is disguised in Danish, French, etc.; and in morris (dance) = Moresco (or Moorish).

11. Ic (Lat. ĭcus) = belonging to, as in—

(i) This ending is disguised in indigo (from Indicus [colour] = the Indian colour.)

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12. Id (Lat. ĭdis) = having the quality of, as in—

13. Ile, il (Lat. īlis), often used as a passive suffix, as in—

(i) Fragile, in passing through French, lost the g—which was always hard—and became frail.

(ii) The suffix ile is disguised in gentle and subtle.

(iii) Gentile, gentle, and genteel, are all different forms of the same word.

(iv) Kennel (= canīle) is really an adjective from canis.

14. Ine (Lat. īnus) = belonging to, as in—

(i) In marine, the ending, by passing through French, has acquired a French pronunciation.

15. Ive (Lat. īvus) = inclined to, as in—

(i) This ending appears also as iff, by passing through French, as in caitiff (= captivus); and in the nouns plaintiff and bailiff.

(ii) It also disguises itself as a y in hasty, jolly, testy, which in O. Fr. were hastif, jollif, testif (= heady).

(iii) It unites with the English word talk to form the hybrid talkative.

16. Lent (Lat. lentus) = full of, as in—

17. Ory (Lat. ōrius) = full of, as in—

18. Ose, ous (Lat. ōsus) = full of, as in—

(i) The form in ous has been influenced by the French ending eux.

19. Ous (Lat. us) = belonging to, as in—

(i) It unites with English words to form the hybrids wondrous, boisterous, righteous (which is an imitative corruption of the O.E. rightwîs).

20. Und (Lat. undus) = full of, as in—

(i) Rotund has been shortened into round. Second is, through French, from Lat. secundus (from sequor, I follow)—the number that follows the first. Ventus secundus is a favourable wind, or a “wind that follows fast.”

(ii) This ending is slightly modified in vagabond and second.

21. Ulous (Lat. ŭlus) = full of, as in—

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25. The following are the chief

Latin Suffixes for Verbs.

1. Ate (Lat. atum, supine), as in—

(i) Assassinate (from the Arabic hashish, a preparation of Indian hemp, whose effects are similar to those of opium) is a hybrid.

2. Esce (Lat. esco), a frequentative suffix, as in—

3. Fy (Lat. fĭco; Fr. fie—from Lat. facio) = to make, as in—

4. Ish (connected with Lat. esco) = to make, as in—

5. Ete, ite, t (Lat. itum, etum, tum), with an active function, as in—

26.  The suffixes which the English language has adopted from Greek are not numerous; but some of them are very useful. Most of them are employed to make nouns. The following are the chief

Greek Suffixes.

1. Y (Gr. ια ), makes abstract nouns, as in—

(i) Fancy is a compressed form of phantasy (phantasia = imagination).

(ii) The Iliad is the story of Ilion (Troy), written by Homer.

2. Ic (Gr. ικός) = belonging to, as in—

(i) With the addition of the Latin alis, adjectives are formed from some of these words, as logical, musical, etc.

(ii) The plural form of some adjectives also makes nouns of them, as in politics, ethics, physics. In Ireland we find also logics.

(iii) Arithmetic, logic, and music are from Greek nouns ending in ikē.

3. Sis (Gr. σις) = action, as in—

(i) In the following words sis has become sy, as hypocrisy, poesy, palsy (short for paralysis).

(ii) In the following the is has dropped away altogether – ellipse, phase.

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4. Ma or m (Gr. μα ), passive suffix, as in—

(i) In diadem and system the a has dropped off; in scheme and theme it has been changed into an e.

(ii) Schism comes from schizo, I cut. The ending in ismos is most frequent.

(iii) This ending unites freely with Latin words to form hybrids, as in deism, mannerism, purism, provincialism, vulgarism, etc.

5. St (Gr. στης) = agent, as in—

(i) This suffix has become a very useful one, and is largely employed. It forms numerous hybrids with words of Latin origin, as abolitionist, excursionist, educationist, journalist, protectionist, jurist, socialist, specialist, royalist.

6. T or te (Gr. της) = agent, as in—

(i) Comet means a long-haired star; planet, a wanderer; poet, a maker (in Northern English poets called themselves “Makkers”); an apostate, a person who has fallen away.

(ii) This ending is also found in the form of ot and it, as in idiot, patriot, hermit.

7. Ter or tre (Gr. τρον), denotes an instrument or place, as in —

8. Isk (Gr. ισκος), a diminutive, as in—

9. Ize or ise (Gr. ιζω) makes factitive verbs, as in—

(i) This ending combines with Latin words to form the hybrids minimise, realise, etc.

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